Anonymity as a Major Generator of Self-disclosure in Online Groups
RESEARCH REVIEW
Research Reviews Editor’s Note
This research review is by Ravit Raufman, Ph.D., and Salit Shahak. Dr. Raufman is senior lecturer at the University of Haifa, Graduate School of Creative Art Therapies and Department of Counseling and Human Development. Her research interests include online group therapy, fairy tales, and the social unconscious. Mrs. Shahak is a doctoral student at the Professional School of Psychology, Sacramento, California. Her research deals with online group counseling for postpartum women.
Nick Kanas, M.D.
Research Reviews Editor
Lapidot-Lefler, N., & Barak, A. (2015). The benign online disinhibition effect: Could situational factors induce self-disclosure and prosocial behaviors?. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 9(2), article 3. doi: 10.5817/CP2015-2-3.
Misoch, S. (2015). Stranger on the internet: Online self-disclosure and the role of visual anonymity. Computers in Human Behavior, 48 535–541.
Among the variables explored in the field of group therapy, self-disclosure has been found to be a major factor in enhancing the bonds of trust between group members, legitimizing group membership, and strengthening group identity (Kirschner, Dies & Brown, 1978). Research has shown that the willingness to disclose information is significantly higher in computer-mediated communication than in face-to-face-settings, and anonymity plays a significant role in this process (Joinson,
2001). The role anonymity plays in on-line self-disclosure was addressed by Suler (among others), who suggested that “When people have the opportunity to separate their actions online from their in-person lifestyle and identity, they feel less vulnerable about self-disclosing and acting out” (Suler, 2004, p. 322). Suler noted that when people are not held accountable in the offline world for their online acts, they are able to disclose more intimate information.
In this review, we reflect on two studies of online communication that explore the components of self-disclosure, anonymity, and disinhibition effects in enhancing group communication. Even though the online communication explored in these studies was not in the context of therapy groups, the explored component of self-disclosure has been found to be associated with therapeutic factors in group therapy (Yalom, 1995), so it has relevance to group therapists.
The first study presented here was conducted by Lapidot-Lefler and Barak (2015) on the benign effects of disinhibition. It was designed as a continuation of an earlier study exploring the toxic effects of online disinhibition (Lapidot-Lefler, 2012).
The aim of their recent study was to examine, under controlled conditions, the effects of participant anonymity, invisibility, and lack of eye contact on self-disclosure and prosocial behaviors as indicators of benign online disinhibition.
Their study included 144 Israeli undergraduate students divided into pairs. Each pair was presented with the “kidney transplant dilemma.” This task asks the participants to chat with each other and to decide which of a set of candidates should be given a kidney transplant. Brief descriptions of each candidate was provided.
To test for a disinhibition effect, a three-way experimental factorial design was used for the following independent variable categories:
- anonymity vs. no-anonymity
- visibility vs. invisibility
- eye contact vs. absence of eye contact
Anonymity was achieved by assigning each subject pair alias names but providing no further identification details. For non-anonymity, participants were assigned a list of personal fictional identifiers, such as first and last name, gender, age, address, major field of study, and job. Visibility was maintained by using a webcam allowing a view of each subject’s upper body. Invisibility was maintained by the absence of such a camera. Eye contact was maintained by the use of additional webcam adjustments to capture the eyes and a portion of the forehead of the subjects, and each was asked to maintain eye contact throughout the experiment. Lack of eye contact was established by the absence of this camera.
Self-disclosure was measured in three ways: expert judges’ analysis of the written text from these chat sessions, formal textual analysis of these sessions, and self-reports. Textual analysis of self-disclosure was established by counting pre-specified words and expressions of first-person comments in the chat sessions. Self-reported self-disclosure was based on Leung’s questionnaire (2002).
The results found that self-disclosure increased in the absence of eye contact (vs. presence of eye contact). The combination of invisibility with anonymity
rendered a higher total self-disclosure score than invisibility and non-anonymity. However, in the condition of visibility, the presence or absence of anonymity had no effect on the total self-disclosure score.
The results of this study suggest that the interaction of anonymity, invisibility, and lack of eye contact increase self-disclosure. However, the results contradict the widely accepted hypothesis that anonymity alone is the strongest predictor of online self-disclosure, as suggested in previous studies (Joinson, 2001). Lapidot-Lefler and Barak explain this as possibly resulting from the fact that previous studies may have not taken into account other factors in the online environment that could affect the person’s sense of anonymity (e.g., the visibility factor).
The next study reviewed here utilized a new online source for examining the relationship between anonymity and self-disclosure: the YouTube video. Misoch (2015) hypnotized that self-disclosure occurs online, even when the revealing person is visually not anonymous. To test this, she analyzed self-disclosing videos (vlogs) from YouTube, with the goal of measuring whether visual anonymity is a crucial condition for self-disclosing behavior. Two kinds of vlogs were examined: (1) videos about self-injurious behaviors, and (2) the so-called “note card stories.” Videos about self-injury show individuals deliberately causing major injury to themselves. Misoch explains her choice of using self-injury vlogs by assuming that self-injury is a hidden act, connected with emotions of shame and guilt. Therefore, revealing these behaviors can be seen as a process of self-disclosure (Misoch, 2010, 2012).
Note card stories are a new and creative form of online self-disclosing behavior that makes use of audio-visual channels. In this mode of online communication, people communicate a message by presenting written cards. One of the first and most famous videos of this genre is the video uploaded by Jonah Mowry:
‘Whats Goin On’. . . uploaded on 10.08.2011 (retrieved on 7.30.2016 from YouTube), and so far was viewed by over 11 million people. In his video, Jonah Mowry reveals, in a very intimate and touching manner, his experience and suffering from mobbing, self-injury and loneliness.
For the purpose of her investigation, Misoch reports on two series. The first examines 25 videos of self-injury. The videos were sampled using German language search terms, such as “my self-harm” and “my self-injury.” The videos were selected from a list of results according to a list of random numbers. The second examined 25 videos that showed individual stories in a self-disclosing manner using the notecard stories frame.
The analysis of both series focused on the topic, narrative, and degree of visual anonymity in the videos. The topics of the presented videos were diverse (e.g., depression, suicidal thoughts, death of a parent, self-injury, eating disorders). All videos were analyzed by two different researchers using qualitative methods of hermeneutic image analysis (a well-known method for analyzing interpretations and meanings). Hermeneutic research includes various different approaches. Methods of analysis may also vary, and in different disciplines, discipline-specific methods exist for interpreting phenomena. and content analysis (Mayring, 2008; Muller-Doohm, 1997; Sowa & Uhlig, in Misoch, 2015).
The results suggested that self-disclosing behavior occurs frequently on YouTube, despite attempts at anonymity. All of the self-injury videos were uploaded using a false name, and most of the producers preferred to stay visually anonymous. Nonetheless, 30% were not visually anonymous and clearly showed either the face or the body of the presenter. In the examination of the notecard stories, the vast majority of video creators also preferred to use a false name. However, twenty-one of the
twenty-three card story’s publishers showed their faces, making them completely identifiable on a visual level. Thus, as in the Lapidot-Lefler and Barak study presented above, Misoch’s study suggests that visual anonymity is not a necessary factor for increased on-line self-disclosure.
Clinical implications
Online support and intervention groups promise to be a low-cost, convenient, and fast-growing aid for people in distress. This makes the Internet an empowering agency for many individuals (Amichai-Hamburger, McKenna, & Tal, 2008). The possibility that online therapy groups can be helpful points to the need for more evidence-based research.
The two studies reviewed here support the notion that visual anonymity is not the main factor for increased self-disclosure in online communications. This finding has relevance to group therapy. Understanding the influencing factors that promote self-disclosure in these groups will provide therapists with a better understanding of how to adjust their interventions to the online world. This means that group therapists should not necessarily attend to create anonymity in online groups and can make use of existing applications such as Zoom that include cameras. This way, group therapists can enjoy the advantages of online groups and at the same time create conditions similar to FtF groups without bothering to create visual anonymity. It is yet for the researches to examine the role visibility plays in promoting online self-disclosure. For example, does the fact that participants can simultaneously see themselves and the other group members (such as in Zoom sessions and alike) effect the willingness to self-disclose?
References
Amichai-Hamburger, Y., McKenna, K, Tal, S. A (2008). E-empowerment: Empowerment by the Internet. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 1776-1789.
Mowry, J. (2011). ‘Whats going on.. retrieved on 7/30/16 from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TdkNn3Ei-Lg
Joinson, A. N. (2001). Self-disclosure in computer-mediated communication: The role of self-awareness and visual anonymity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 177–192.
Kirschner, R., Dies, R. and Brown, R. (1978). Effects of Experiential Manipulation of Self-Disclosure on Group Cohesiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46: 1171-77.
Lapidot-Lafler, N. (2012). Effects of anonymity, invisibility, and lack of eye-contact on toxic online disinhibition. [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Haifa., Israel.
Lapidot-Lefler, N., & Barak, A. (2015). The benign online disinhibition effect: Could situational factors induce self-disclosure and prosocial behaviors?. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 9(2), article 3. doi: 10.5817/CP2015-2-3.
Leung, L. (2002). Loneliness, self-disclosure, and ICQ (” I seek you”) use. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5, 241-251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/109493102760147240
Mayring, P. (2008). Qualitative inhaltsanalyse: Grundlagen und techniken (10th ed.). Weinheim: Deutscher Studien Verlag.
Misoch, S. (2010). Bildkommunikation selbstverletzenden Verhaltens (SVV) im virtuellen Raum: eine exemplarische Analyse des präsentierten Bildmaterials auf YouTube, social network sites und privaten Homepages. kommunikation &
gesellschaft 11. Available at:
[Retrieved 20.02.2015.]
Misoch, S. (2012). Visualization of the hidden: The visual communication of self disclosing behaviour on YouTube. In VISUALIST 2012 Proceeding Book (Vol. I, pp.
253–260).
Misoch, S. (2015). Stranger on the internet: Online self-disclosure and the role of visual anonymity. Computers in Human Behavior, 48 535–541.
Muller-Doohm, S. (1997). Bildinterpretation als struktural hermeneutische Symbolanalyse. In R. Hitzler & A. Honer (Eds.), Sozialwissenschaftliche hermeneutic (pp. 81–108). Opladen: Leske + Budrich.
Sowa, H., & Uhlig, B. (2006). Bildhandlungen und ihr Sinn. In W. Marotzki & H. Niesyto (Eds.), Bildinterpretation und Bildverstehen: Methodische Anstze aus sozialwissenschaftlicher, kunst- und medienpdagogischer Perspektive (pp. 77–106). Wiesbaden: VS.
Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7, 321-326.http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/1094931041291295.
Yalom, I.D. (1995). The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy. 4th edition. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Raufman, R., Shahak,S. (2017). Anonymity as a Major Generator of Self-disclosure in Online Groups. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, May 19, 2017
